* Human lungs contain almost 1,500 miles of airways and over 300 million alveoli.
* An average person breathes in around 11,000 litres of air every day.
* Your nose and ears continue growing throughout your entire life.
* Your sense of smell is around 10,000 times more sensitive than your sense of taste.
* Around 80 per cent of what we think is taste is actually smell. Flavour, is a combination of taste and smell perception.
* The
brain uses over a quarter of the oxygen used by the human body.
* The brain of an adult human weighs around 3 pounds (1.5 kg). Although it makes up just 2 per cent of the body’s weight, it uses around 20 per cent of its energy.
* If you smoothed out all of the wrinkles in your brain, it would lay flat the size of a pillowcase.
* Your heart beats around 100,000 times a day, 365,00,000 times a year and over a billion times if you live beyond 30.
* Grouping human blood types can be a difficult process and there are currently around 30 recognised blood types (or blood groups). You might be familiar with the more simplified “ABO” system which categorises blood types under O, A, B and AB.
* When listening to music, your heartbeat will sync with the rhythm.
* An healthy adult human heart beats about 75 times on average in a minute.
* In one year, a human heart would pump enough blood to fill an Olympic size pool.
* If all the blood vessels in the human body were laid end to end, they would encircle the Earth four times.
* Skin is the human body’s largest organ
* The outer layer of your skin is the epidermis, it is found thickest on the palms of your hands and soles of your feet (around 1.5 mm thick).
* A large amount of the dust in your home is actually dead skin. Humans shed about 600,000 particles of skin every hour.
* Humans have a stage of sleep that features rapid eye movement (REM). REM sleep makes up around 25 per cent of total sleep time and is often when you have your most vivid dreams.
* An eyelash lives for about 150 days before it falls out.
* The smallest bone found in the human body is located in the middle ear. The staples (or stirrup) bone is only 2.8 millimetres long.
* The femur (thigh bone) is the longest bone in the human body.
* As well as having unique fingerprints, humans also have unique tongue prints.
* Goose bumps evolved to make our ancestors’ hair stand up, making them appear more threatening to predators.
* Humans are the only animals with chins.
* Blushing is caused by a rush of adrenaline.
* The cornea is the only part of the body with no blood supply – it gets its oxygen directly from the air.
* The human body contains enough fat to make seven bars of soap.
* Between birth and death, the human body goes from having 300 bones, to just 206.
* The small intestine is roughly 23 feet long.
* An average sized man eats about 33 tons of food in his/her life time which is about the weight of six elephants.
* Nephrons, the kidney’s filtering units, clean the blood in the human body in about 45 minutes and send about six cups of urine (2000 ml) to the bladder every day.
* One quarter of your bones are in your feet.
* You can’t breathe and swallow at the same time.
* The average person produces enough saliva in their lifetime to fill two swimming pools.
* There are about ten thousand taste buds on the human tongue and in general girls have more taste buds than boys!
* While awake, your brain produces enough electricity to power a lightbulb.
* The left side of your brain controls the right side of your body and right side of your brain controls the left side of your body.
* In camera terms, the human eye is about 576 megapixels.
* Our brain is programmed to erect the inverted image formed on our retina by the convex eye lens. A newborn baby sees the world upside down till its brain starts erecting it.
* You carry, on average, about four pounds of bacteria around in your body.
* 50 percent of your hand strength comes from your little finger.
* Sometimes the pain from scratching makes your body release the pain-fighting chemical serotonin. It can make the itch feel even itchier.
* As people get older, their skin gets thinner, drier, and less elastic, hence wrinkles start appearing.
* An adult skin weighs around 3 to 4 kgs.
* If you spread out your skin, it would measure around 20 square feet in size, about the same size as a child’s bed sheet.
* Diaphragm, which is a thin membrane under the lungs, sometimes twitches, causing a sudden intake of air, which is interrupted by throat closing. This is what we call hiccups.
* In case of injury under the skin the blood vessels break and spread into the tissues near the injury. The dark colour of the blood shows through the skin as bruise.
* A running nose is the way our body flushes out germs from our nose while we catch cold and flu.
* On average, human body contains enough iron to make a nail 2.5 cm (1 inch) long.
*
The human body contains enough fat to make seven bars of soap.* Embryos develop fingerprints three months after conception.
* Between birth and death, the human body goes from
having 300 bones, to just 206.
* Hearts can beat outside of their bodies.
* An Average Adult Requires 10-20% of total Calories as Proteins.
* It is Equivalent to 1g/kg body weight.
* Daily requirement of Carbohydrates is 15-20g/day.
* The study of Cells is Called Cytology.
* The study of Tissues is Called Histology.
* The Spinal Cord gives attachment on either side to 31 pairs of Spinal Nerves. Of these 8 are Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumber, 5 Sacral and 1 is Coccygel.
* Saliva is Slightly alkaline PH= 7.2
* Release Thromboplastin to initiate blood Clotting.
* A Pigment called urochrome gives the Urine pale-yellow colour.
* Cerebrum is the Seat of intelligence and memory.
* Cerebrospinal fluid present in Spinal Cord.
* There are 45 miles of nerves in the body.
* The human heart has enough pressure to project blood ten feet away.
* The only part of the body that has no blood supply is the Cornea in the eye, it takes in Oxygen directly.
* Alcohol decreases the level of Sex hormone Testosterone in men, but increase it in women.
* An average human required 1600k(Cal/day),Blood Metabolic Rate (BMR).
* Timeline of antibiotics
Most people have heard of the first antibiotic to be developed – penicillin.
*Penicillin was discovered in 1928 when it was observed that the growth of a mould (fungus) on a culture of bacteria killed the bacteria around the mould. However, it took many years to recognise its potential to treat infection, being developed for significant medical use in 1941. Take some time to review the timeline below of antibiotic development.
* 1928 Discovery of penicillin.
* 1938 Penicillin isolated.
* 1940 β-lactamase (enzyme responsible for penicillin resistance) identified.
* 1941 First treatment and large scale production of penicillin.
* 1943 Streptomycin isolated – first effective drug against tuberculosis.
* 1947 Chloramphenicol discovered.
* 1948 Tetracycline discovered from bacteria in soil samples.
* 1949 Erythromycin developed for people allergic to penicillin.
* 1952 Vancomycin discovered from bacteria in soil samples from Borneo.
Vancomycin became important due to rise of methicillin resistant bacteria.
* 1959 Methicillin synthesised. Effective against Staphylococcus aureus
resistant to penicillin.
* 1961 First report of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
infection.
* 1970s Rise of MRSA infection.
* 1997 Appearance of vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
* 2012 Classification of resistant infections increased from just multidrug
resistant (MDR) bacteria to new categories of extensively drug resistant (XDR).
Today Increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistant infections.
Glossary
Causes of Human Disease: Transmitting and Fighting Infection
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
~ A
Adaptive immune system•The part of the immune system that involves a specific response to pathogens. Once the adaptive system has encountered a specific pathogen, it can mount a much faster specific defence against it.
AIDS/HIV• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects and destroys a specific group of T cells in the body. If untreated HIV can severely affect the immune system of an individual over time and make it much harder for their body to fight off diseases and infections. AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection.
Airborne transmission• The process of infection by breathing in droplets containing an infectious pathogen.
Alkalinity• A substance that is alkaline, has a pH value higher than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the substance is.
Anaerobic bacteria• A classification of bacteria that grow without needing oxygen.
Antibiotic resistance• Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of antibiotics, and resist the effects of an antibiotic. This makes the antibiotic less effective and the bacteria continue to multiply.
Antibiotics• Chemicals that kill bacteria.
Antibodies• Molecules produced by the adaptive immune system that bind to specific molecules (antigens) that are recognised by the specific antibody.
Antigen:antibody complex• The antibody molecule bound to its specific antigen
Antigen• A molecule recognised by an antibody – this process is very specific for each antigen.
Antimicrobials•Substances that destroy microorganisms (includes antibiotics).
~ B
B Cells• The cells of the immune system that produce antibodies. After activation, B cells proliferate to produce two types of clones- plasma cells that secrete antibodies and memory cells that remain in the body.
β-lactamase• An enzyme that breaks down β-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin, thus conferring resistance to the antibiotic.
Bacteria• Single celled microorganisms that multiply by division.
Biofilms• A group of microorganisms (such as bacteria) that stick together.
Blood vessels• The tubular vessels that transport blood within the body.
~ C
C3 protein• A protein that is a central part of the complement cascade.
Capillaries•The smallest blood vessels that take oxygen and nutrients to tissues.
Carbapenemase • An enzyme produced by some bacteria that can destroy several antibiotics, conferring antibiotic resistance
Cells• Individual units of life.
Cell wall• The protective wall surrounding a bacterial cell.
Chicken pox• A viral disease common in childhood.
Chlamydia• A sexually transmitted disease.
Chloramphenicol• A type of antibiotic.
Cholera• A disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
Cleave/cleaving• Cutting into two parts.
Clindamycin• An antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections.
Clostridium difficile • A bacterium that causes hospital acquired infection.
Complement• A series of proteins in the innate immune system that form a cascade to produce active components that help to kill bacteria.
Communicable disease• An infectious disease that can be passed from person to person by direct contact or by indirect contact (eg body fluids on surfaces or through a vector such as an insect).
Contagious disease• An infectious disease that can be passed from person to person by direct contact or by indirect contact (eg body fluids on surfaces).
Cow pox• A mild viral disease that can be passed from cows to humans – cow pox virus is related to the smallpox virus, but the disease is much less dangerous.
Culture (bacteria)• A growth of bacteria in the laboratory, either in liquid medium or on solid medium (eg agar gel).
Cytokines• Chemicals released by cells of the immune system that signal to other immune cells.
Cytotoxic T cells• A class of immune cells that recognise and kill cells that have been infected by viruses.
~ D
DNA• Deoxyribonucleic acid, the biological molecule that carries genetic information.
Dendritic cells• A type of immune cell that can present foreign antigens to other cells in the adaptive immune system.
Diphtheria• A bacterial infectious disease that may be mild or severe, which was once a common childhood disease but is now rare as the result of immunisation.
Distal• Away from the centre of the body or point of attachment.
~ E
Ebola• A viral disease originating in West Africa with a high mortality rate.
Ectoparasites• Parasites that live on the outside of the body (eg lice).
Efficacy• The ability of a drug to induce a desired response (in medicine).
Electrolytes• The ionic solutes in a living cell or biological fluid.
Endoparasites• Parasites that live inside the body (eg tapeworm).
Enzyme• A biological molecule that catalyses a reaction to yield a product or products.
Equilibrate• Bring to equilibrium (a state of balance).
Erythromycin •A type of antibiotic.
Escherichia coli • A common type of rod shaped bacterium.
Extensively drug resistant (XDR) bacteria• Bacteria that resist most existing antibiotics.
~F
Flagella • A whip like structure on the outside of bacteria that can propel the bacteria.
Fungi• A class of organism forming a separate kingdom to animals and plants, including microorganisms such as mould and yeast as well as macroorganisms such as mushrooms.
~G
Gastrointestinal infections• Infections of the digestive system.
Genetic material• The hereditary material of a cell or an organism that plays a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cells.
Gonorrhoea• A sexually transmitted bacterial disease.
~H
Helper T cells• A type of T cells that acts by helping other immune cells to remain active.
Hepatitis• An inflammatory liver disease.
HIV/AIDS• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by the humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects and destroys a specific group of T cells in the body. If untreated HIV can severely affect the immune system of an individual over time and make it much harder for their body to fight off diseases and infections. AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection.
~I
Impetigo• A skin infection caused by bacteria (usually by Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus).
Immune system• The body’s system of specialised cells and molecules that fight pathogenic microorganisms.
Immunisation• The use of antigens from pathogenic microorganisms to stimulate the immune system to induce immunity against that pathogen.
Indirect transmission• The passing on of an infection by indirect contact – such as through infectious material on a surface.
Infect/Infection• The introduction of pathogenic microorganisms into the body.
Infectious diseases• A disease caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can be passed between people.
Inflammation• Part of the innate response to pathogens.
Inflammatory response• The same as inflammation
Innate immune system• The part of the immune system that responds rapidly to pathogenic microorganisms in a non-specific manner.
In vitro• An experiment that is carried out in a test tube or other laboratory vessel (i.e. experiments that do not involve humans or animals).
~K
Killer T cells• Another name for cytotoxic T cells.
~L
Lipid membrane• The lipid bilayer structure that surrounds cells and is impermeable to most water soluble molecules.
Lymphocytes• A broad category of white blood cells that form in the lymph nodes including B cells and T cells.
~M
Macrophages• White blood cells that are found in tissues and can destroy bacteria by engulfing them and breaking them down by digestion.
Macroscopic• Large enough to be visible to the naked eyes.
Malaria• A disease caused by parasites with a life cycle that includes stages in mosquitos and human liver and red blood cells.
Mannose binding lectin (MBL)• A protein that binds to mannose, a sugar found on bacterial cell walls.
Measles• A viral disease characterised by fever and a rash.
Membrane• A pliable sheet-like structure acting as a boundary, lining, or partition in an organism.
Membrane attack complex• A complex formed in the membrane of bacteria by several components of the complement cascade, creating a pore that allows water into the bacterial cell which causes the cell to burst.
Membrane bound organelles• Functional bodies within a eukaryotic cell delineated by a membrane to separate them from the rest of the cell. (eg mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum)
Memory cells• A type of B or T cell formed when the cell has been activated by its specific antigen, and which remains in the body for many years.
Meningitis• An inflammation of the meninges, the membranes that line the brain and spinal cord.
Merozoites• The stage of the malarial parasite life cycle that forms in the liver.
Methicillin• A type of antibiotic.
Microorganisms• Organisms such as bacteria and viruses that are too small to see without a microscope or electron microscope.
Molecules• A group of atoms bound together, the smallest unit of a chemical compound.
MRSA infection• Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection with S. aureus bacteria that are resistant to the antibiotic methicillin.
Multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria• Bacteria that are resistant to many different antibiotics.
Mumps• An infectious viral disease that involves fever and swelling of the lymph nodes.
~N
Nucleic acids• Molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Nucleus• The membrane bound organelle in a eukaryotic cell in which the genetic material resides.
Neutrophils • White blood cells in the blood stream that move to the site of infection and can engulf bacteria.
Norovirus • A virus that causes a short term sickness.
~O
Organelles• The membrane bound subunits with specialised functions within a cell.
~P
Pan drug resistant (PDR) bacteria• Bacteria that are resistant to all current antibiotics.
Parasite• An organism that lives on or in another organism without providing any benefit to that organism.
Parasitic diseases• A disease caused by a parasite.
Particles• Small solid bits of a substance.
Pathogens• Something that causes disease.
Pathogenic microorganism• A disease causing microorganism.
Penicillin• An early antibiotic that was purified from a species of fungi.
Phagocytosis• The process of engulfing bacteria or particles.
Plasma cell• The activated form of B cells that secrete antibodies.
Plasmodium falciparum • The parasite that causes malaria.
Pneumonia • A disease involving inflammation of lung tissue.
Polio• A disease caused by the polio virus that can be mild or severe.
Prevalence• In epidemiology, prevalence is the total number of cases of a disease at a given point in time.
Proteins/Protein coat • Proteins are biological molecules that make up structural and functional parts of cells and tissues; some viruses have a coat made of proteins.
Protozoa • A classification of single celled eukaryotic microorganisms.
Proximal• Close to the centre of the body or point of attachment.
~R
Receptors• The molecules on the surface of a cell or organelle that bind to other molecules.
Replicate• To be copied, as in reproduction of DNA.
Resistant bacteria• Bacteria that cannot be killed by a specific antibiotic.
RNA• Ribonucleic acid, a molecule involved in several cellular processes including the synthesis of proteins; the genetic material in some viruses.
~ S
Salmonella• A gastrointestinal disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium.
Sanitation• The development of systems and services to dispose of human waste (such as faeces and urine) in a safe and hygienic manner.
Septicaemia• Bacteria dividing in the blood.
Single celled organisms • Organisms such as bacteria and yeast that consist of a single cell.
Small pox• An often fatal disease caused by the small pox virus, now eradicated.
Spore • A dormant phase of certain bacteria that can survive long periods under extreme conditions, then germinate to form new cells when conditions are right.
Sporozoite• The motile spore-like stage of protozoa infection. (eg in malaria)
Streptomycin• A type of antibiotic.
Syphilis• A sexually transmitted disease caused by Treponema pallidum bacteria.
T~
T cells• A class of lymphocytes that develop in the thymus and are part of the adaptive immune response.
Tetanus• A disease caused by Clostridium tetani.
Tetracycline• A type of antibiotic.
Tissue• An organisation of cells that together form a specific function.
Transmission• Passage of disease between people or other vectors. (eg insects and people)
Tropical diseases• Diseases that occur in tropical climates.
~V
Vancomycin• A type of antibiotic.
Variolation• An early form of inoculation against small pox that involved transferring pus from an infected person into a scratch on a healthy person.
Vector• An organism that transfers a pathogen or parasite from one animal to another (eg the mosquito is the vector that transmits the Plasmodium protozoan from one human to another).
Viruses• Acellular organisms consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) packaged in a protein coat.
~W
White blood cells• Motile cells of the blood that do not contain haemoglobin and which are part of the immune system.
Whooping cough• Also called pertussis, whooping cough is a highly infectious airborne bacterial disease caused by Bordetella pertussis.
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